NSO Data: 69% of Urban Women Cite Care Work as Barrier to Employment
A new survey by the National Statistics Office (NSO) reveals that childcare and household chores keep approximately 69% of women out of the labour force in India's 46 largest cities, underscoring the persistent gender bias in care work even in relatively affluent urban areas. The survey, which focuses on labour market indicators for million-plus cities, was first reported by the Times of India.
In stark contrast, only 1% of men cited childcare and household work as reasons for being outside the labour force. Other reasons for women not participating included pursuing further studies (16%) and health or age-related factors (10%). Among men, more than half (53%) attributed their absence from the workforce to higher studies, followed by health and age reasons (39%). Notably, just 1% of women cited 'social reasons' for staying out of the labour force, though the report did not elaborate on this category.
India's female labour force participation rate is among the lowest in major economies, estimated at 30.7% in 2025, though it has shown an upward trend in recent years. The survey highlights wide variation across cities. For instance, 83% of women in Howrah cited care work as the reason for being out of the labour force, followed by Surat (81%), Pimpri Chinchwad and Bhopal (78%), and Dhanbad (77%). At the lower end, Coimbatore (38%) and Agra (41%) recorded significantly lower shares, while Kota (57%), Hyderabad (58%), and Visakhapatnam and Srinagar (60%) fell in between.
The survey also found that the quality of employment for women in these large cities has improved compared to other urban areas. About 65% of working women in million-plus cities reported having salaried jobs, against 51% in urban India overall. Casual work accounted for only 3%, compared to 9% in other urban areas.
However, a significant wage gap persists. On average, salaried men in these cities earn Rs 30,700 per month, while women earn Rs 23,700 — 23% less. The gap is even wider in cities like Kalyan-Dombivli, Navi Mumbai, and Nagpur, where women earn nearly half of what men earn. Prayagraj stood out as an exception, with women earning more than men. In self-employment, men's monthly earnings (Rs 33,880) were more than double women's (Rs 16,160).
Workers in million-plus cities reported longer working hours, averaging 49.5 hours per week compared to 47.1 hours in urban India. Both men and women in these cities worked more hours than their counterparts elsewhere. Among salaried women, those in Rajkot (51.5 hours) and Faridabad (50 hours) worked the longest hours.
The data highlights the dual burden of care work and wage inequality that continues to limit women's economic participation, even in India's most developed urban centres.
